The Maratha Hegemony
From the Rise of the Peshwas to the Fields of Panipat
The Marathas, under the capable leadership of the Peshwas, emerged as a formidable challenge to Mughal authority both in the Deccan and the North. They uprooted Mughal power from Malwa and Gujarat, extended their sway over Rajputana in the 1730s and made a determined bid to fill the political vacuum caused by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. Their position swiftly improved, and by the 1750s, they seemed to have established their claim as chief inheritors of the Mughal dominion till their authority was challenged by Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). Despite this setback, the Marathas quickly recovered and offered the most formidable challenge to the English East India Company in the struggle for political supremacy in India.
The King's Ministers: A Shift in Power
The early 18th century marked a fundamental transformation within the Maratha political landscape. Internal strife following Shahu's release from Mughal captivity created an opportunity for a new center of power to emerge, shifting authority from the Chhatrapati to the office of the Peshwa.
Shahu's Return
Released from Mughal captivity, Shahu claims the throne, challenging Tarabai's regency.
Battle of Khed (1707)
Bhairon Pant Pingle's defection and Shahu's victory over Tarabai secure his coronation as Chhatrapati (1712-48).
Peshwa Appointed (1713)
Shahu appoints Bhairon Pant Pingle (Balaji Vishwanath) first as Senakarte, then as Peshwa in 1713.
Hereditary Rule
The Peshwaship becomes hereditary after Balaji Vishwanath, reducing the king to a mere symbol of Maratha sovereignty.
Architects of an Empire
Under the first three hereditary Peshwas, the Marathas aggressively expanded their dominion, seeking to fill the political vacuum left by the disintegrating Mughal Empire. Each Peshwa contributed uniquely to this imperial ambition.
Conceptual Impact of Key Peshwas
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)
- First Maratha leader to reach Delhi and intervene in Mughal imperial politics.
- Treaty with Sayyid brothers (1715) secured Shahu's mother's release.
- Helped the Sayyid brothers in deposing Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
- Laid foundation of Maratha Confederacy, centralizing administration in Pune.
- Obtained right of collecting Chauth & Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal Subhas of the Deccan (recognition of Maratha authority).
Baji Rao I (1720-1740)
- Greatest Maratha leader after Shivaji; became Peshwa at 20.
- Initiated the policy of aggressive imperialism: "strike and strike at the roots of the weathering tree i.e. the Mughal Empire."
- Led to indiscriminate attacks over the Mughal territories by the Maratha Chiefs.
- Conquered Gujarat and Malwa and founded the autonomous Maratha states under the Maratha Chiefs.
- The climax of his victorious career was the defeat of the Nizam of Hyderabad in the Battle of Bhopal (1737), after which the Maratha authority became supreme in the entire South.
- Attacked Delhi during Muhammad Shah's reign in 1737.
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)
- Also known as Nana Saheb; continued father's imperialist policy.
- Chhatrapati Shahu died in 1748-49; Raja Ram (Tarabai's grandson) imprisoned, Shahu-II placed on the Maratha throne.
- After the death of Shahu, the Maratha monarchy lost political status completely; Pune became the real center of Maratha power.
- Fought against Haider Ali and also concluded a treaty with him.
- Indiscriminate attacks on Rajput states of Rajputana made them hostile to the Marathas.
- Treaty with Mughal Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk led Marathas to Punjab, involving them in the Third Battle of Panipat.
The Maratha Confederacy (Maratha Mandal)
With the rise of the Peshwas, the Maratha Empire evolved into a loose confederacy or a federation known as the Maratha Mandal. Power was shared between the Brahmin Peshwa (centralized in Pune) and the non-Brahmin Maratha Chiefs, all ruling in the name of the Maratha king. Outside Maharashtra, the Maratha Chiefs ruled independently, shared revenues with the Peshwas, and acknowledged his authority.
Major Maratha Houses
- Peshwas (Pune)
- Gaekwads (Baroda)
- Holkars (Indore)
- Scindias (Gwalior)
- Bhonsles (Nagpur)
Clash of Titans: Panipat (1761)
The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat, about 60 miles (97 km) north of Delhi. It was fought between a northern expeditionary force of the Maratha Empire and the forces of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by two Indian allies the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. Militarily, the battle pitted the French origin artillery and cavalry of the Marathas against the heavy cavalry and mounted artillery (zamburak and jizail) of the Afghans and Najib-ud-Daulah, both ethnic Afghans. The battle was considered one of the largest and most eventful fought in the 18th century, and has perhaps the largest number of fatalities in a single day reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.
Panipat: Forces in Contrast
| Feature | Maratha Empire | Afghan Coalition |
|---|---|---|
| Leadership | Sadashivrao Bhau (Supreme Commander) | Ahmad Shah Abdali (King of Afghanistan) |
| Key Military Strength | European-style infantry, heavy French-made guns (static artillery). | Superior heavy cavalry, highly mobile mounted artillery (zamburak & jizail). |
| Key Military Weakness | Artillery lacked mobility against fast-moving Afghan forces. | Alliance of convenience, not a fully unified army. |
| Allies (Expected/Actual) | Expected: Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs (none supported). | Actual: Rohilla Afghans of Doab, Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh). |
| Strategic Position | Fighting 1000 miles from capital (Pune), supply lines stretched. | Knew North Indian terrain well, better intelligence. |
Anatomy of the Defeat
The Maratha loss at Panipat was not due to a single failure, but a complex interplay of diplomatic, strategic, and military factors that Abdali's forces expertly exploited.
Relative Impact of Factors Leading to Failure
Superior Afghan Strength
Abdali's army had both numerical and qualitative superiority. Though Maratha infantry was organized along European lines and had some of the best French-made guns, their artillery was static and lacked mobility against the fast-moving Afghan forces. The heavy mounted artillery of Afghans proved much better in the battlefield than the light artillery of Marathas.
Lack of Good Allies
The Marathas went to war without crucial support from expected allies like the Rajputs, Jats, and Sikhs. Their past interference in Rajput states (levying heavy taxes and huge fines), large territorial and monetary claims upon Awadh, and raids in Jat territory (e.g., Suraj Mal) alienated potential partners. The Sikhs were ready to co-operate with the Marathas, but it goes to the discredit of the Marathas that they did not make a proper confederacy with the Sikhs.
Internal Disunity
The senior Maratha chiefs constantly bickered with one another. Each had ambitions of carving out their independent states and had no interest in fighting against a common enemy. Some didn't support the idea of a direct battle, preferring guerrilla tactics, which further fragmented their strategy. The Marathas were proficient in Guerrilla tactics but lacked the numbers to match the army of the Afghans.
Strategic & Leadership Errors
The Marathas were fighting alone at a place which was 1000 miles away from their capital Pune, straining logistics. The Peshwa's decision to appoint Sadashivrao Bhau as the Supreme Commander instead of Malhar Rao Holkar or Raghunath Rao proved to be an unfortunate one, as Sadashivrao was totally ignorant of the political and military situation in North India. Najib, Shuja and the Rohillas knew North India very well. Besides, most of North India had allied with Abdali. Abdali used shaturnals (camels with mobile artillery at his disposal). He was also diplomatic and struck agreements with Hindu leaders, especially the Jats and Rajputs, and former rivals like the Nawab of Awadh, appealing to him in the name of religion. He also had better intelligence on the movements of his enemy, which played a crucial role in his encirclement of the enemy army.
The Unwritten Legacy
While the Marathas quickly recovered from the reverses suffered at Panipat and offered the most formidable challenge to the English East India Company in the struggle for political supremacy in India, the battle proved to be decisive in shaping India's future.
The battle did not decide who was to rule India,
but rather who would not.
There was a complete collapse of the Maratha military power. The Maratha dream for the establishment of their dominion over the entire country was shattered as a consequence of their defeat at Panipat. The most important consequence of the Maratha defeat was that it paved the path for British supremacy in India.
Comments
Post a Comment